Nepal´s cardamom; dropping the price

  large cardamom (queen of spices)  is one of the most exported products from nepal and is commonly famous as black cardamom in international market. In nepal, cardamom covers more than 90% of exported products and mostly production is concentrated on himalayan areas. According to MOAD, in fiscal year 2014/15 highest production was recorded in taplejung followed by sankhuwasava, panchathar, illam , khotang. Duplicate products are produced from green cardamom and are exported by countries like china. this trend is playing great role in decreasing nepalese cardamom´s market place. Although export trend of cardamom is declining, there was increase of export in the fiscal year 2015/16.According to the blog in The rising Nepal, the export of cardamom grew by 20.2% in the fiscal year 2015/16 as compared to the previous year.

According to repor the current price of 1 kilogram of cardamom is Rs 25000 this year and it was 80000  last year. The price is decreasing for about 50% in two years.  The price this year was reported to be the lowest over the decade.This price is expected to fall further and there is no any positive hopes to rise the price in near years. The decreasing condition has decreased the hope of the farmers for the increase in production. Also farmers are forced or compelled to sell in lower price. The farmers who were selling small amount of cardamom may shut down their production due to high chance of loss.The one of the causes can be decrease in quality of cardamom. Lack of proper quality checking mechanism causes less preference in international market.Production of cardamom too is also decreasing due to insect pest attack and poor soil condition. Disease prone character is major cause in production decline.  viral disease chirke and furkey severely affects flowers and clumps which ultimately causes  high yield reduction and eventually death of whole crop According to report of ICIMOD some farmers are intregrating kiwi with cardamom and some are cultivating shade giving plants. Mulching could be the better water management technique but this was not done effectively there.If this decreasing trend continues, it will take no times for the farmers to lose hopes in production and refuse in the production.This will in end causes decrease in export percentage and reduction In nepalese economy.

ओर्गनिक खेती

                              

                                 उच्च मूल्य र अधिक माग भएकालेे ओर्गनिक खेतितर्फ मानिसको आकर्षक बढेको छ। त्यसैले संघ संस्था हरुको ध्यानाकर्षण हुनु स्वभाविक नै हो। परिभाषा तर्फ जानुपर्दा ओर्गनिक खेती भनेको रासायनिक मल र कुनै बिशादी प्रयोग नगरी घरमै भएको गाइबस्तुको मल र कुहिएको झारपातहरु आदि प्रयोग गरि गरिने खेती बुझिन्छ ।सामान्य रूपमा ओर्गानिक  भनेको के हो ?? भनेर सोधपुछ गर्दा  अधिकाम्शको आउने उतर पनि येहि हो , बिशादी  बिहिन वा थोरै बिशादी भएको खेती।बिशादी सम्भव होला नहोला आफ्नो ठाउमा छ ओर्गानिक खेतीको परिभाषा बिशादी रहित खेती भन्न सकिन्छ ।अत्यन्त गम्भीर प्रश्नहरू जस्तै ओर्गानिक तरकारी, फलफूल कसरी छुट्टाउने त? कसरी चिन्नु ओर्गानिक हो कि होइन भनेर? को जवाफ कसैले संतोषजनक दिन सकेका छैनन् ।त्येसैले किरा राखेको तरकारी ओर्गानिक वा सर्लक्क नपरेर ओइलायेजस्तो तरकारी ओर्गनिक हो जस्तो भ्रम प्रस्तै पाइन्छ ।

आजभोलि मानिसहरूमा शव्स्थ शरीरको महत्त्वको ज्ञान  बढेको अथवा अर्को शब्दमा भन्न पर्दा स्वस्थ राम्रो बनाउनुपर्छ भन्ने मानिसहरूको संख्या बढी भएकाले ओर्गानिकको माग बढी देखिन्छ ।तर झन बढी मुल्य किन तिर्नु एउटे हो, केही त भएको छैन अहिलेसम्म भन्ने मानिसहरूको पनि कमि छैन ।सङ्सङै रासायनिक जस्तो थोरै प्रयोग गरेर धेरै  उत्पादन दिने र छिटो फल पाउन नसकिने हुदा ब्याबसाइ बाट पनि सतप्रतिशत संतुष्टि पाइएको छैन।अन्तरास्ट्रिय बजारको तुलनामा नेपालमा बिक्रि बितरन भने न्यून  नै छ। नेपालबाट ओर्गानिक निर्यात पनि संतोषजनक छैन ।परिक्षण ल्याब को कमि नै राम्रोसँग अन्तरास्ट्रिय बजार नपाउनु  र अन्तरास्ट्रिय मापदण्ड पुरा गर्न नसक्नुको मुख्य कारण हो।अहिले जताततै ओर्गनिक खेतीको माहोल बढीरहेको क्रममा ओर्गनिक खेतीबाट घाटा भने पटक्कै छैन। तर यस किसिमको खेतीमा किसान वा व्यावसायिहरु ले भने धेरै नै सजकता अपानाउनु पर्छ। भनिन्छ नि आजभोलि त हावामा पनि बिशादी मिसिएको हुन्छ ।पृथकता दुरि, ओर्गनिक बीउ , मल, किरा भगाउने खालको जैविक तरिका ,बिशादी मुक्त पानी आदिको प्रयोग अत्यन्त सजग भयेर गर्नुपर्ने हुन्छ।एकीकृत शत्रुजीव,झारपात ब्यबस्थापनले पनि ओर्गनिक खेतीमा ठुलो भुमिका खेल्छ ।पाचतरे होटेलहरू को शोभा तरकारी हुन ओर्गनिक तरकारी त्य्सैले यस्को महत्त्वलाइ नकार्न सकिन्न ।

बढी जनसंख्या , प्रयाबरन पदूषण , माटाेको उब्जाउ क्षमता जोगाउन ओर्गनिक खेती नितान्त आबश्याक छ।उच्च पहाडी भेग र बर्खा आश्रति खेती हुने ठाउ मा ओर्गनिक खेती अन्य ठाउभन्दा अलि सजिलोसँग गर्न सकिन्छ ।न त पदूषण को डर न त पौष्टिक आहारको कमि हुन्छ भन्ने चिन्ता ओर्गनिक खेती त सुनमा सुगन्ध जस्तो हो।तर यस् खेतिलाइ निरंतरता दिन र उन्नत तिर लग्न सरकारको भुमिका धेरै रहेकोे छ। बिकशित मुलुकहरू जस्तो बिश्ब्सनिय बिकशित ल्यबहरुको आबश्यकता छ। ल्याबमात्र नभएर  परिक्षणको ब्यबस्था हुनु पनि अपरिहार्य छ। हाम्रो खेती देशलाई पुग्नेभन्दा धेरै उत्पादन गरि बिदेश सम्म पुराउन सक्ने भयो भने श्यस्थ सङ्सङै देशको उन्नतिका दिनहरु पनि छिटो देख्न पाउने छौ।

nepals climate change over a decade

climate change has been labeled as wicked problem that is characterized by unforseen predicaments. over a past few years there has been increasing recognition of risk and opportunities that climate change has brought in different aspects. Nepal´s vulnerability profile which provides vulnerabilities and adaptation action shows that Nepal is especially vulnerable to change in precipitation pattern and rates and timing of glacial melts.This could highly impact on agriculture, biodiversity and hydropower energy production.Nepal has experienced changes over a time in different climate functions.

The study title`impacts of climate change on mountains of nepal ans their implication to SMD´ has indicated nepal as 4th most vulnerable countries in the world.further it has focused snow and glacier melt might increase water in nepal river system by 5% till 2030.Also four species of mammals and seven species of birds are believed to be extinct.According to ekantipur shares the average mean annual temperature may see a rise by 0.92-1.07 degree celsius in the period of 2016-2045.The annual precipitation may increase in short term period by 2-6 percent and in long term by 8-12 percent. some studies show that warming is occuring at much higher rates in high altitude reqions than in low altitude regions however climate change has touched every part in some extent.

Floods and landslides are common in nepal often triggered by heavy rains while drought are also becoming more frequent.According to article published in south asian journal, last year production of maize was very low and production of chilly was nill.The production has decreased from 4000mt in 2012 to 224 mt in 2013.Cities like kathmandu, bhaktpur, patan are facing severe scarcity of water.Every year many people die and thousand become homeless and suffer from various injuries due to sudden disasters.With rising in temperature,the number of both warm days and warm night will increase and number of cold days and cold nights will go down.The tourism of nepal has been decreasing due to decrease in beauty of mountain as written in article climate change impact in nepal.Climate change is speeding up glacier melting, affecting the alpine pastures and animals depending on them.ICIMOD has studied climate change impact and shown difference between summer monsoon and winter monsoon.

Climate change is becoming already a dangerous to our survival and we have to do everything possible to protect ourselves from its impacts.The problems of today will be surely modified by tomorrow.In nepal adoptation is much more recognized  than coping.In well adapted system people do well in the existing climate than changing climate condition.Relatively small area and diversified climate within that area are the complications in coping climatic changes.Financial opportunities will help in self help and security in needs of basic life.Use of communication media sources enable in information flow which acts as early warning against different impacts.National efforts are helping in some extent by policies such as climate change policy,climate resilient planning tool, local adaptation plan of action and some other.Effective climate compatible SMD policy, programs and legislations that address issues of different aspects of climate change should be designed.

​GENDER ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK

Gender analysis is a type of socio-economic analysis that uncovers how gender relations affect a development problem. It identifies specifically how public policy affects women and men differently. It builds by asking questions who does what? Where? When? And with what resources? It highlights differences between and among women, men, girls and boys in terms of their relative distribution of resources, opportunities, constraints, and power in given context. (siwal)
Gender analysis basic questions;

✓ Who does what?

✓ What is the actual division of the labor between men and women?

✓ Who has what?

✓ Who has access to and control over the resources?

✓ What social, economic and political factors influence the rights of access and control?

✓ How resources are distributed and who gets what? 
Principle when planning and outlining the gender analysis

◈ Be as specific as possible

◈ Examine what has been done before

◈ Base on relevance and usefulness

◈ Include women’s, men’s, girls’s and boy’s perspective and their relationship 

   
Gender analysis framework are step by step tools for carrying out gender analysis, which helps to raise questions, analyze information, and develop strategies to increase womens and mens participation. (shanker)

Particularly within the project framework the following issues need to be considered;

• Do the planning assumptions adequately reflect the constraints on women’s participation in the program?

• Will the changes in gender division of labor be monitored?

• Will the true data on women’s control over and access be collected?

• Can the project meet both practical gender needs?

• Will the project be relevant to the poor women in terms of personnel timing and location?  

Gender analysis frameworks

• Gender roles framework[Harvard]

• Triple role framework[Carolyn moser]

• Web of institutionalized framework[ caren levy]

• Gender analysis matrix

• Equality and empowerment framework[sara longwe]

• Capacities and vulnerable framework

• People oriented planning framework

• Social relation framework

Harvard analytical framework;

   It is also called gender roles framework and was developed by the Harvard institute for international development in collaboration with the women in development office of USAID. It was one of the earliest of the framework. The assumption was that it makes economic sense for development aid projects to allocate resources to women as well as men which will mate development more efficient.

Strength; 

• Give clear pictures of gender division of labours

• Show differences in workload and access and control of resources

     Weakness;

• Silent on power relation

• Ignores changes over time

Components of Harvard analytical framework
The planner needs to know the tasks of men and women in the population subgroup in the project area to be able to direct the project activities. So, data must be gathered on womens and mens involvement in each stage of the project development.

Triple role framework;

    Caroline moser developed the moser framework for gender analysis in 1980s while working at development planning of university of London. The moser framework follows the gender and development approach in emphasizing the importance of gender relation. It also includes gender roles, identification, gender need assessments and decision making.

Strengths;

• Useful in assessing the impact of intervention on gender relations

• Triple role makes work visible

Weakness;

• Silent on the power relations in the triple role

• Division between strategic and practical is artificial

• Change over time is not clearly known

 The tools of the triple role framework is given as; 

Women’s Empowerment (Longwe)Framework;

               It Aim-to assess to what extent a is supporting empowerment. It is based on different ‘levels of equality and ‘levels of recognition’ of women’s issues in the project objectives

• Level of equity; bases on five level of equity with men
The level of equity decreases as the increase in level of trophic level

• Level of recognization of women issues; it involves negative level, neutral level and positive level
Strengths 

•Useful in explaining empowerment

•Strongly ideological (i.female standard)

•Identify the gap between rhetoric and reality 

Weakness

•Ignores intersectionality [the study of overlapping or intersecting social identities and related systems of oppression, domination and discrimination] 

•It is static and silent on change over time.

Bibliography

a conceptual framework for genderanalysis and planning. (n.d.). Retrieved from ILO/SEAPATS online gender learning and information module.

amoah, o. j. (n.d.). gender analysis framework tool.

marle, v. (2006). pdf.

sahay. (1998). women and empowerment. Retrieved from discovery publishing house: http://www.gdrc.org

shanker, j. (n.d.). linkedin slideshare. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net

siwal, B. (n.d.). gender analysis framework and planning. Retrieved from linkedin slideshare: http://www.slideshare.net

oilseed crops

                   Oilseed crops are high-value agricultural commodity for use in refined edible oil products. As the world population increases, demand for high-quality seed oils continues to grow. Oilseed crops have been grown all over the world and are considered important crops due to their economical value. It shares 1.5% to agricultural GDP. Oilseed crop is grown in 181361 ha of land with the production of 135494 t (MOAC,2010). The national average productivity of oilseed crop is 747 kg/ha. Oilseeds crop occupies 7th position in area after paddy, maize, what, pulses, millets and potato. It occupies third position in total production after potato, sugarcane, within cash crop.

The species of oilseed crops are;

Common name

Scientific name

Chromosome number

Toria (rapeseed)

Brassica campestris var.toria

16

Sarson

Brassica campestris var. sarson

20

Mustard

Brassica juncea

36

Sesame

Sesamum indicum

26

Ground nut

Arachis hypogea

40

Linseed

Linum usitatissimum

30

Niger

Guizotia abyssinica
Sunflower

Helianthus annus

34
The species of oilseed crops with their varieties are;

1 mustard; lumle 1, pragati 1, unnati, priti, morang tori, bikash tori, type 9,  

2 yellow mustard; Krishna, pusa, pusa bold

3 sesame; nawalpur khairo til 1, nawalpur jhuse til 1

4 ground nut; baidehi, rajharshi, jayanti, jyoti, janak,b4
Methods of breeding

✓ Emasculation Removing male parts from a complete flower; preparation for crossing

✓ Germplasm collection, characterization and evaluation of local landraces

✓ Germplasm  introduction and evaluation of exotic genotypes

✓ Mass selection

✓ Clonal selection

✓ Pureline selection

✓ Genetic engineering

✓ Somaclonal variation

✓ Mutation breeding To induce mutations to create new variability

✓ Hybridization Crossing genetically different plants to transfer genes or achieve recombinants followed by selection

✓ Tissue culture

✓ Linkage analysis For determining association between genes

✓ Polyploidy breeding Chromosome doubling Manipulating ploidy level, mainly for fertility Triploidy To achieve seedless varieties

✓ Male sterility To eliminate need for emasculation in hybridization

✓ Marker assisted breeding Isozyme markers To facilitate the selection process GIS and CAT To accelerate the adaptability of genotypes

✓ DNA sequencing Ultimate physical map of an organism

✓ Plant genomic analysis Studying the totality of the genes of an organism

✓ Bioinformatics Computer-based technology for prediction of biological function from

✓ DNA sequence data

✓ Microarray analysis To understand gene expression and for sequence identification

✓ Phenomics For physical and biochemical traits Plant transformation For recombinant DNA work
Problems related with release of varieties;

a) Crops are grown in poor marginal lands

b) Not availability of quality seeds in time, place and quantity as needed

c) Non availability of inputs in time

d) Inadequate extension

e) Yield instability over years

f) High losses in storage

g) Production technology is not fully developed   

Research activities conducted by different organizations;

                 Research activities of crops are carried out for the improvement of the crops and are handled by different organization/institutions. NARC is the leading organization. Under the NARC national oil seed research program has been working for the release of the varieties of the oilseed crops. Also AFU, IAAS, NGOs, INGOs, private organization and other institutions are acting singly or on the collaboration with different organizations. Works on varietal improvement, crop management, wider adaptation, soil fertility management, disease and insect pest management, water management, multi location trials  has been done by different organization.

  

 Agriculture and forestry university;

                             The Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU) is a public agricultural university with central offices in Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal. It  is the only  land grand university in Nepal which includes education, research and extension.It was established in June 2010 merging two constituent campuses of Tribhuvan University: the Rampur Agriculture Campus of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science and the Forestry Campus, Hetauda of the Institute of Forestry in Hetauda, Makawanpur. The university exists to offer agricultural workforce development and promote research in agriculture, forestry, and allied disciplines.

Fig;showing steps on farm condition and lab condition

 National Agriculture Research Corporation;

                      National Oilseed Development Program was established on April 14, 1976 (Baishakh 02, 2033 BS) for the research and development of the oilseeds in the country. After the inception of Nepal Agricultural Research Council in 1990 (2048 BS) it was renamed as National Oilseed Research Program (NORP). This program is situated in Nawalpur in Sarlahi District.
Fig; showing the methods or process involving in new variety release

Different trials are conducted on different location and in different stages of the growth and development of the crops. These trials helps in the confirmatory process for the establishment of the released varieties and for the hereditary activity of the progeny. Also these trials helps to find the perfect area or ecological region fo the cultivation of the crops and adaptation of the crops(wide or narrow adaptation). The trials conducted after the release of new varieties are; 
.

• Crossing nursery

• Generation advancement nursery (GAN)

• Observation nursery (ON)

• Initial evaluation trial (IET)

• Advanced yield trial (AYT)

• Coordinated varietal trial (CVT)

• Farmer’s field trial (FFT)

• MINIKIT

• Participatory varietal selection (PVS)

• Mother baby trial (MBT)

• On-farm trial

• On-station trial

• Diversity kit
conclusion
Different private organizations, NGOs, INGOs, institutions  are involved in the development of new resistant varieties for the development of the oilseed crops. The method involved is common for the development of varieties by different organizations i.e. 

Fig; steps involved in development of new variety

For the development of new varieties, the sources of resistance are; commercial  cultivars, landraces, wild progenitor, related genera, non host, unrelated organisms etc. the gene is transferred from wild species to the commercial variety by the repeated back crossing. The transfer of gene is easy between primary and secondary gene pool but if the gene is to be transferred between primary and tertiary gene pool, there should be secondary gene pool as the bridge material.

Bibliography

B.D.singh. In plant breeding principle and methods. kalyani publisher.

joshi, B. (n.d.). PLANT BREEDING IN NEPAL PAST PRESENT AND FUTURE. AFU journal .

lgseed.co. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://wwwlgseeds.co.uk/crops/oilseeds

prabin. (n.d.). trend analysis of oilseed crop cultivation and constraints. Retrieved from prabin blogsite: http;//prabinblogsite.wordpress.com

Hong  do chung and pandey Deepak. production methods for selected agricultural crops

Introductory plant breeding lecture note B.R.Ojha

.

 

communication policy and strategies

The following are the strategies of agricultural communication in Nepal:

1. Prioritizing agricultural extension program implementation through farmer’s groups.

2. Increasing production and productivity of potential crops by identifying crop specific pockets based on locational feasibility.

3. Launching of crop specific pockets with priority in irrigated areas where as implementation of low cost high value commodity programs based on the local feasibility in the rainfed hill districts.

4. Agricultural program implementation keeping in view of the upliftment of disadvantaged farmers and        women groups.

5. Ensuring the supply of productive materials and inputs through the participation of entrepreneur farmers and private sector in developing agricultural technologies, extension and revitalization of resource and distribution centers.

6. Collecting, analyzing and making good flow of agricultural price and market information and to develop infrastructures for market management.

7. Emphasizing cereal production for food security

8. Linking of agricultural commodities to agro-industries and maintaining the balance between productions and industries.

9. Drawing attention to the implementation of programs that can make use of physiography to the maximum extent in order to help promote crop diversification, agricultural entrepreneurship and agri-business.

10. Avoiding negative effect in the environment and to maintain balance between the use of 10. agricultural inputs and natural resources, special focus is given to the implementation of IPM approach

11. To develop a set of extension information materials on agriculture in Nepali, for use by extension personnel in the Departments of Agriculture and Department of Livestock Services. 

12. To develop a new mechanism for research–extension linkages that can be used by the Agriculture Communication Division (ACD) and the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) in the future. 

13. To train ACD and NARC communication staff and NARC scientists in how to develop user-friendly extension materials. 

14. To improve linkages among NARC, ACD, the Ministry of Agriculture and I/NGOs working in agriculture in Nepal. 

 15. Ensuring access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food 

16. Eliminating skewed participation and inequity in the sector

 17. Maximising  growth, employment and income in agriculture

 18. Enhancing the sustainable management of natural agricultural resources and ecological systems 

19. Ensuring effective and efficient governance 

20. Ensuring knowledge and information management
 The following are the policies of agricultural communication in Nepal:

1. Appropriate programs will be developed and implemented to improve productivity as well as competitiveness of the agricultural sector through the use of ICTs in the planning, implementation, monitoring, market expansion and the information delivery processes.

2. Private sector investment in the development and provision of ICT services including infrastructure in rural areas having marked intensity in agriculture related activities will be incentivized along with public resources 

3. Appropriate measures will be adopted to deploy, exploit and integrate ICTs and other technologies into the operations and activities of the sector from production, through to processing, packaging, marketing and distribution; physical infrastructures will be developed for modernization and mechanization of  agriculture.

3. Agricultural production will be increased based on geographical diversity.

4.  Food security will be supported by increasing food production and yield and having maintained the internal supply of food stuffs.

5. Production and productivity of raw material for the expansion of agro- industries will be increased.

6. The produces that have comparative advantages and room for appropriate market management will be supported.

7. The availability of off-farm employment will be increased by supporting agriculture base small industries and enterprises.

8.  Export promotion and import substitution of agricultural produces will be supported.

9. Poverty alleviation will be supported by increasing the opportunity of productive employment for small, marginal and women farmers.

10. Technologies will be screened and standardized by doing adoptive research.

11. Balance will be striked between agricultural development and environmental conservation.

Traditional and indigeneous food

Nepal has diversity in every aspect even it has diversity in food.Different people with different caste and religion are enjoying different recepies of food in nepal. The most interesting part about this is the food that people now enjoy are mostly the food transferred from one generation to another I.e. they are traditional foods.The foods include Gundruk,sinki,masebra,mesu,dahi,mahi,jhand,rakshi etc.These food are made by fermented process and require more than a day to be made.Dal bhat tarkari is the food that are cooked twice a day in almost every kitchen of nepal.Tarkari includes every vegetables that are edible from neuro,siblighan to mushroom,paneer.There are food that are eaten in the especial ocassion too.some include dahi chamal,quanti etc.These type of food are made and eaten in special day only.The special day is choosen by our ancestors.There is variety of food as per the caste like newari food,thakali food also the terai,hilly and himalayan region food too differs.We can find lots of variety of food within small locality like chukaune is famous in palpa,gulmi etc.So these varieties of food makes our country rich in traditional food.

Organic pest and disease management

Pest and disease are the part of natural environment.Pests are those organisms may be insects, birds, nematodes,vertibrates as well as invrtibrates which causes economic damage to human and human products. And disease refers to the unnormal condition which comprises other than normal functioning of the plants or any other.

organic cultivation commonly has less pest and disease occurance. This is due to the reason that the plants fertilized with slow releasing fertilizers like compost are more resistant to insect pest and disease than fast releasing fertilizers.

Management focuses on keeping existing pest populations and diseases low. Management is of a much higher priority than control. 

The following headings describes some of the methods which are useful ni ta management of pest and diseases organically or by the intregrated pest and disease management;

1)  Selection of adapted and resistant varieties:

Varieties are choosen which are well adapted to the local environmental conditions (temperature, nutrient supply, pests and disease pressure).There are many varieties in the traditional crops that are grown by the farmers.These varities have been grown from the centuries and have better resistance from the disease and pest.

2) Selection of clean seed and planting materials

 Safe seed should be used which are inspected and free from pathogen and weeds. Seeds are selected from safe source.

3) Crop rotation

 Growing same crop in the same place year after year builds up the organisms in the soil. Rotation breaks the life cycle of the organisms. Crop grown as a part of rotation becomes less vulnerable than the monocrop cultivation. Also some insects favour some type of crop and some other favour other crop. Continuous cultivation of single type of crop harbours insect pest and diseases.

4) Use of balanced fertilizers and nutrients

 Too much fertilization and irrigation causes negative effects in different growth and development stages of the plant. Excessive use of Nitrogen fertilizers favours insect and disease attract. Potassium helps the plant to develop the resistance against the pest and diseases. Use of organic matter increases the activity of microorganisms and hence the growth of pathogenic fungi is supressed.

5) Use of suitable cultivation practices

 Deep ploughing and exposing the ploughed soil exposes the insect larva and resting phases to the sunlight. Proper cultivation practices reduces weed growth as weeds harbours the pest and diseases. Also proper cultivation practice helps in the decomposition of infected plant parts.

6) Conservation and promotion of natural enemy

 Natural predators are the enemy of insect pests. Some of them are Ladybird beetle, Tiger bettle, Preying mantid etc. Trichogramma is the natural enemy of several insects of Lepidopteras Coleopteras and Dipteras. Trichoderma on the other hand acts as the controlling biological enemy which supresses the fungi either by mycoparasitism or by competition in nutrients or by production of toxic substances.

7) Selection of optimum planting time

 Plants develop susceptibility and resistance at the certain stage of growth and development. The match of resistance stage of plant with the occurance of the pest and disease can help the plants to escape with the pest and disease.At certain temperature and humidity the occurance becomes prominent.So early and late plantation also affects largely in the insect pest management.

Besides these all the points described above, plant itself has certain characters which are acted to cope with pest and diseases. The external features like wax on the stem, hairs on the leaves etc make plants non preferred by the insect pests.Also some plants produce yoxic substances like tomatin in tomato which affects the metabolic activity of the pests.These are the plants own internal characters that help them in resistance from insect pest and diseases.

Brinjal(egg plant)

Brinjal is one of the most common popular and principle vegetable crops grown In tropics. It is second most popular after tomato grown in all parts except higher altitude. A number of cultivars are grown throughout the country depending upon yield, consumers preference about color, size and shape. It is perennial but mostly grown as annual. It occupies 9276 ha of land with average annual production of 124669metric ton.It is also known as poor mans crop as it is highly productive.

Origin and distribution

Brinjal is said to be native of india with secondary centre as china.Name ofbrinjal in different countries as:Aubergine(german) Aubergine(dutch) Nasu(japan) padlizsa(hungarian) terung(malay).the name egg plant was first given by early europeans as first introduction were small fruited,white shaped similar to chicken egg.A wild type is called as solanum melongena var insanum was found on bengal plain of india.Vavilow(1928) felt that its centre of origin was in indoburma region.

Major brinjal producing countries are: china turkey japan egypt ,indonesia,iraq,syria,phillipines and india.Major brinjal producing districts in nepal are:sarlahi,saptari,rautahat,dhanusa,morang,jhapa,kailali,sunsari etc(MOAD 2012/13) 

Uses

Brinjal is quite versatile used both in garden and kitchen.Egg plant has chemicals that can cause digestive upsets if eaten raw.so it is cooked.It can be grilled,stuffed, roasted,served in soups and stews and on kebabs and used in curries and stir- fries

Importance

• Egg plant is good source of fibre and aids in digestion

• it is good source of anti-oxidants and helps in cancer prevention

• helps in birth defect prevention

• green and purple colored brinjal is said to be good for diabetic patients

• it is reported to stimulate the intra peptic metabolism of blood cholesterol resulting marked drop in blood cholesterol level.presence of linolic and linolenic acud helps in decholesteolizing action
 
Botany

Brinjal(solanum melongena L) belongs to family solanaceae.plant is erect, semierect or prostrate and branched in nature which is about 1 metre or lower in height.it is woody or scurfy spiny or non spiny.leaves are opposite or semi opposite,long,ovate or oblongish ovate.All present day cultivars belong to three botanical varieties of equal ranks under the species melongena.

• Esculentum( round and egg shaped cultivars)

• Serpentinum(long and slender types)

• Depressum(all early and dwarf brinjal cultivars)

It has fibrous or lignified root system.Flowers are large,violet or white colored,solitary or in cluster,pentanerous and hermaphrodite.Fruit is pendant,fleshy berry.The shape of fruit varies from ovoid,oblong,obovoid or long cylindrical and color varies from purple,white,green,yellowish or stripped.It is day neutral plant.Pronounced heterostyly flowers favours cross pollination.Pollination occurs by insect mainly by bumble bee and honey bee.The seeds are borne on fleshy placentae filling the locular cavity completely.

Climate

Egg plant crop is long warm season crop that requires ideal temperature range of 20-28 degree celsius.Optimum growing temperature range is 25-35 for vegetative growth and 20-25 for flowering and fruiting.This crop is susceptible to severe frost condition.Late varieties can withstand low temperature than early varieties.High yielding season for egg plant is rainy season under warm humid condition.Low temperature cause abnormal development of ovary (splitting)in flower bud which later develops into deformed fruits.A daily mean temperature of 13 to 21 is most favourable for better growth and yield.It was observed that when brinjal is grown in warm season,growth and flowering was normal and almost all fruit develop from basal flower.

Soil requirement

Brinjal can be grown in wide range of soil as it is hardy in nature.However well drained,rich in organic matter soil is best for cultivation.Sandy loam soil are preferred.Pervious crop residue must be stubble- disked to improve soil aeration.It grows best with soil pH of 5.5 to 6.5. it roots to a depth of 90 to 120 cm.so,sandy or silt loam free from physical barriers are better.Saturated soil condition and heavy clay soil should be avoided.

Field preparation

The preparation of land depends on the type of soil and previous crop of the land.Soil should be ploughed thoroughly 4-5 times before planting seedlings followed by repeated planking.The manure or compost should be applied and incorporated well into the soil.Choose the land after rice in order to reduce bacterial wilt and nematode incidence

Manuring and fertilization

soil analysis is a practical guide for plant nutrition and manuring,particularly at the initial stage before administrating any,which depicits the status of soil to follow manuring program.Brinjal being long duration crop requires good quantity of fertiluzers.In general 15-20 ton FYM or compost,200 kg N, 180 kg p2o5,80 kg k2o is recommended per hactare.Full dose of phosphorus and potassium and 1/3rd nitrogen is mixed and applied as basal dressing.Nitrogen is top dressed in two equal doses; 30 And 50 days after transplanting.Urea can be used for side dressing.Application of minor elements is no highly required however effects on improvement of flowering and fruiting have been reported by adding micronutrients such as Cu,Mn, Zn etc

Nursery management

Beds of 3 m length,1 m wide and o.15 m height are prepared.Add 15 kg well rotten farm yard manure in each bed.A small quantity of superphosphate and muriate of potash are added along with fym.Drench the nursery beds with captan(3g/litre water) 2 days before sowing in order to avoid occurence of damping off and level it.Treat the seed with thiram or captan(2 g/kg seed) if not treated already.sow the seeds 1 cm deep in rows of5 cm apart.cover the beds with wheat straw or long grass or any mulching materials till the occurance of seed germination.

sowing and transplanting

atumn winter- seeds are sown in june-july and transplanted in july- august. Spring summer-  seeds are sown november and transplanted in january/feburary, rainy season-seeds are sown in march and transplanted in april. In hilly region-sowing of seed is done from march-april and transplanted in may

land is ploughed upto 4 to 5 times before transplanting.seedling are ready to transplant when they attain height of 15 cm with 4 leaves stage in 4 to 6 weeks.it was reported that under aged(30days) seedlings pronounced marketdly low yield compared to older ones(40 to60 days).transplanting is best done in late afternoon to allow the seedlings to recover at night.the seedlings are thoroughly watered 12-14 hours before transplanting to the field.after transplanting ,press the soil firmly around the root and irrigate forrows immediately.it can be mechanically transplanted by transplanter.

spacing

the spacing is recommended 60 cm*60 cm,75 cm*75 cm,75 cm* 60cm depending upon size and spread of plant and duration of bearing period.highly vigorous bushy and late bearing cultivars are given wider spacing as compared to dwarf,upright and early types.growers usyally plant 8 rows and skip 2 rows to make roadways for harvest operations.

seed rate

generally 400 to 500grams of seed are required for one hectare land.however seed rate depends on the cuktivar and season.

Irrigation

Ensuring the proper irrigation at the time of fruit set redults in good yield and quality.Drip irrigation is beneficial for reducing water use and weed control.Irrigation is not required in rainy season and any stagnant water should be drained out as brinjal is very sensative to ligging condition.Irrigation should be carried out every 3 days during summer and 10 days during winter.Critical watering periods are at flowering,fruit set and enlargement.Volume of water applied depends upon time of year,stage of plant growth,weather,soil condition,depth if root zone.Mulching with black polythene will maintain more uniform soil moisture.

Weed control

Egg plant is one of the initually slow growing crops which is incapable of competiting with the agressive weeds.Weed infestation increases insect pests and disease of egg plant.Weed can be controlled either physical/mechanical method or chemical control.Mulching with black polythene will effectively control weeds and greatly lesson labours.Chemicals herbicides lasso(1.5kg ai/ha) enide 50 WP(dil.1:300)sancor 70 WP(dil1:4000) paraquat 24 EC(dil.1:250) etc.make sure the field is weed free during initial stages of crop growth.chemical herbicide fluchloralin should be applied 1 week after transplanting.seedling followed by one hand weeding at one month interval.

Harvesting

usually for cooking purpose,it should be harvested at immature stage.manual harvesting can be carried out by just twisting or sharp knife can do the task.it should be harvested when they atrain a good size and color,tender and its surface shouldnot lose its bright and glossy appearance.at fully maturity,fruit becomes yellow or dull in color.at harvesting,the calyx and stem end are left attached to the fruit.harvesting usually starts 75 to 90 days after transplanting.varieties with elongated fruit take more time to ripen.over mature egg plant becomes pithy and bitter.

post harvest

fruit is dumped in water bath for washing and cooling prior to packing.fruit should be handled and packed carefully to avoid skin abrasions and puncturing.store safely for 7 to 10 days at 7 to 10 and 90-95% relative humidity.chilling injury occurs causing spoilage,discoloration,physiological loss in weight at temperature below 7

Yield

yield varies with the cultivars,region and management practices.early crop normally yields 20-30 ton/ha,long duration crop yields 35-40 ton/ha and hybrid give yield of 45-80 ton/ha under high fertility rate.with the normal annual cropping practice,6 to 12 marketable fruit may be expected per plant for large fruited type weighing range of 300-400 g each.

seed production

brinjal is self pollinated crop,it can out cross to a considerable extent through insects,if more than one cultivar is grown in adjacent plots.it is essential to isolate cultivars to produce quality and pure seeds.it is suggested to give isolation distance of at least 400,200,100 m for nucleus,foundation and certified seed production respectively.the seeds collected from first second tier fruit are those which have higher 100 seed weight than seeds collected from fruit beyond second tier.fruit harvested at botanical maturity gave the highest quality seeds and seed extracted from fruits kept for 5 days after harvest improved earliness and total yield in progeny.seed recovery,viability and vigour is influenced by stage of fruit maturity and picking.for seed production,fruit should be harvested when fully ripe; turning nornal to yellow.it is recorded the seed yield of 600-900 kg/ha

Chyawanprash

Chyawanprash (also spelled chyavanaprasha, chyavanaprash, chyavanaprasam and chyawanaprash) is a cooked mixture of sugar, honey, ghee, Indian Gooseberry (amla), jam, sesame oil, berries and various herbs and spices. It is prepared as per the instructions suggested in Ayurvedic texts. Chyawanprash is widely sold and consumed.  The first historically documented formula for chyawanprash appears in the Charaka Samhita, the ancient Ayurvedic treatise from the early first millennium BCE. Chyawanaprash tastes sweet, sour and spicy at the same time. The taste is largely dominated by the flavors of honey, ghee (clarified butter) and amla and the smell by ghee and other spices including sandalwood, cinnamon and cardamom.The mixture or the formulation just looks like a jam. It has a brown color and a sticky consistency. Its appearance resembles semi-molten tar – a thick dark brown paste.
Composition

Chyawanprash is a potent herbal tonic which contains a mixture of 49 Ayurvedic herbs. 100 g of this product can contain about 15,000 mg of Amla. Hence, Amla is the main ingredient of this tonic. It mostly contains many powerful herbs. These herbs are known for their health benefits. Some of the herbs are noted below:

Ashwagandha, White sandalwood, Pippali or long pepper, Cardamom, Tulsi, Brahmi, Neem, Jatamansi and many others.

Other chief ingredients are asparagus, blue Egyptian water lily, Chinese cinnamon, cinnamon bark, clove, Indian rose chestnut, ghee, Giant potato, honey, sesame oil, Sugar etc.

Consumption and it’s dosage

Traditionally, Chyawanprash is taken 15-20 minutes before the meal and drunk with water, or green tea, or milk. It should be taken slowly, with small portions, dissolving it in the mouth for 5-10 sec

Dosage:

Age group 0 to 1 year: 1 gram

Age group 1 to 5 years: 2.5 grams (a half teaspoon)

Age group 6 to 12 years: 5 grams (one teaspoon)

Age group above 12 years: 5 to 20 grams (1 teaspoon to 4 teaspoons)

In pregnant women: One teaspoon (5 grams) in the morning and one teaspoon in the evening.

The dosage should never exceed from 20 grams a day.

People suffering from diabetes, gas & flatulence, abdominal distention, frequent urination at night, night falls and constipation should not consume chyawanparash.Consumption of Chyawanprash daily, all-round the year should be avoided, mostly during summer as it has a reverse impact.

Health Benefits of Chyawanprash:

In this rushing and running lifestyle, health is a factor which is often neglected. Chyawanprash is the best choice for you. Since ages, it has been known as an herbal tonic with wonderful health benefits. 1 spoon of this Ayurvedic tonic has innumerable health benefits which are beyond your imagination. Here is a list of the health benefits:

1. When there is a change in seasons there is a chance of many viral, fungal and bacterial infections. This Ayurvedic formulation known as Chyawanprash helps in fighting against it. In this way it provides protection to the body.

2. Asthma or chronic bronchitis is not untouched by many people nowadays then Chyawanprash helps by improving the functioning of the lungs.

3. Heat strokes are also reduced by continuous usage of Chyawanprash.

4.  Chyawanprash if taken regularly will facilitate the digestion. 

5. Any kind of constipation, nausea, gas, flatulence or even diarrhea can be cured by regular intake of this effective Ayurvedic mixture.

6. Chyawanprash can be the best way to eliminate and purify the blood and that too naturally.

7.  Chyawanprash works as a brain energizer and helps in enhancing your memory, focus and concentration.

8.  After the age of 30, your skin starts showing the signs of aging. Wrinkling of the face and graying of hair is quite common. Chyawanprash has anti-aging property due to which it can help you to delay such signs.

9. Sexual stamina and pleasure can also be boosted by this formulation.

10. Regular intake Chyawanprash can help them by providing strength, energy, and efficient nourishment.

11. Any urine infections, chest infections, throat infections or gout can be cured by Chyawanprash.

12. Glowing skin and fairer complexion are what this Ayurvedic medicine can also provide.

Side effects

You may experience some effects not exactly side effects. The effects depend upon your body conditions. Here is the list of effects that you may face.

People have a fear that Chyawanprash leads to weight gain as it contains clarified butter or ghee.We need ghee in order to mix the ingredients properly. so it will not lead to weight gain.You might experience a burning sensation in the stomach after consuming this herbal tonic. In such a case drink warm (not hot) milk after the consumption of Chyawanprash.Sometimes people experience loose stools after the consumption of Chyawanprash.